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作者: ²ÝÎr   ÖйúÂֻآ¶Ï´æÔÚÃɹÅÎÊÌ⣬ÕÜ×𵤰Í~´ïÀµÀ®Âï 2023-05-02 05:23:28  [点击:3672]
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ɹһλͳߵڰܲ𵤰ͺͼͼູĻ
ɹһλͳ߰ܲ𵤰ͺͼͼູͼƬʷ/UNIVERSAL IMAGES GROUP/GETTY IMAGES


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2023 4 23 7:00
ζشѧ⽻ѧԺʷѧ ղķ˹A׶ֵ (James A. Millward )

38գӡȴһιݽУ˳ᵽܲ𵤰ͺͼͼкתһλʹﱾһɹŸɮɹźйͬķ̴ͳͨΪش̡תĴзҪáͰ쵼ͽһܲ𵤰ͺͼͼһϵ쵼ɹŵķͽ

ֵǣһ۵Ĺңл񹲺͹PRCֻܾشתл񹲺͹Ǵ۹ͳ̳еȨаɹźءл񹲺͹ֻʷɹŵһ֣йΪɹŵĵɹűΪǹĵλйҰӰ죬һĹҡܲ𵤰ͺͼͼʷԼǵǰľ˽ءйɹŵİͼ

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ʵϣűָ϶Ϊʮܲ𵤰͵ɹкһЩΪȷһδת淢ãδ˵ܸתܲ𵤰ͺͼͼ·ɮ¡úɹοǰĻ棬ЩĸΪҪΪ87Ĵ8ܲ𵤰ͺͼͼѾһιͬʷһʼ17͵ʷ



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ЩҪĺϷԴȣÿͳ߶ΪɺŷǣҪһ㣬Ҫгɼ˼Ѫͳɼ˼ĺᡣΣڽ̵֧ǹؼǰɹŵ۹˹áڶDzش̣ɺѧϰԼǵĺӱ϶ΪŻҪת

16 ͳɼ˼ʱڵɹŴȴˡƺţеļ˾ɹСǻۡ˼͸˲ش̸³ɵһλ³Ĵ֮һͨɹ쵼˺սˣؼ׺ڽа峯 1644 йûɡ

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Ϊɺ˴ͳΪdzɼ˼ʱ³˴Ӱ԰ݿɺߵĽɫˣӦ룬׼ռ½ϲũͨǵ˿֮·ԼͶתƼƻУ׼˽ά˴½ϲǨƵԸӹȣڵ½׼

ʱʱ念ʵ۲ŸոմԼӰ߳۹ĺ彫ijڶйϲ̨̲塣Ѷ˸ϳ԰ǩ˻ݻԼ

׼˹սвҪһؾ½ɹŵIJش-ɹģ峯ͱ߾ǿҳϡ׼ٿһηɹŷ̴ᣬءຣɹԶӺӵĴϯ˻顣ڸľвɹˡִɹžڵҪ塣硣ڴʱһܲ𵤰ͺͼͼһִͼľ

1900 ڣСкº (Bogd Khan) ա
1900 ڣСкº (Bogd Khan) ա
The Bogd Khan poses for a photo as a young boy in the late 1800s.HISTORY/UNIVERSAL IMAGES GROUP/GETTY IMAGES
The first Jebtsundamba was himself the son of a Chinggisid khan, a Khalkha whose pastures spanned outer Mongolia. As the principal Gelugpa lama among the Khalkha Mongols, it fell to the Jebtsundamba to decide what the Khalkhas should do in the face of Junghar pressure. Which way should they jump? Should they seek aid with the Russians? Or submit to the Qing?

The Jebtsundamba chose the Qing, because they were patrons of the Gelugpa church. He led tens of thousands of Khalkhas south, where in a ceremony at Dolon Nor in 1691, they became Qing subjects. Several far-reaching developments flowed from this decision: Since there were no longer any independent Chinggisid descendants of the former Mongol emperors of China, the Qing were able to convincingly assume the Chinggisid mantle, enhancing their credibility among Mongols everywhere. With the help of the new infusion of Khalkha cavalry power, Kangxi and subsequent Qing emperors not only defeated Galdan, but over subsequent decades smashed the Junghar confederation, conquered outer Mongolia, Jungharia, and southern Xinjiang, and replaced the Junghars as the Gelugpas military patrons, thus establishing a Qing protectorate over Tibet.

The Qing managed its new empire in Inner Asia with remarkable success for a century, in large part because it enjoyed Chinggisid and Tibetan Buddhist legitimacy, and did not interfere with, let alone attempt to Sinicize, the culture of its Mongol, Tibetan, or Muslim subjects in Inner Asia. To the contrary, the Qing endeavored to keep Han Chinese out of Inner Asia, or at least limit their settlement, even rooting up illegal Han settlers in Mongolia until the mid-19th century.

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Mongolian monks reach for candies
Mongolian monks reach for candies from a child after the Dalai Lama gave a lecture in Ulaanbaatar on Nov. 6, 2002.NG HAN GUAN/AP
But as the Qing wobbled in its last decades, weakened by the Taiping Rebellion and exactions from Western imperialists, the court took the advice of Han scholar-officials and began promoting Chinese settler colonization of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Xinjiang to extract resources and stave off Russian encroachment. Tibet was too far and too high for Chinese settlers, but the Qing dispatched an army to put Tibet under direct rule in 1910on the eve of its own demiseforcing the then-Dalai Lama, the predecessor of todays incarnation, to flee to India.

Under these circumstances, the Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, at that time the eighth incarnation, was charged with another momentous decision. Concerned about Chinese colonization, when the Qing crumbled in late 1911, the Jebtsundamba along with Khalkha princes declared Mongolias independence from the Qingjust as revolutionaries in China declared China independent. As soon as the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in early 1913, he followed suit. The eighth Jebtsundamba, under the title Bogd Khan (Sacred Khan), became head of state in Mongolia, and the 13th Dalai Lama the head of state in Tibet.

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Tibetan Buddhist monks walking
Tibetan Buddhist monks walk to unveil a thangka painting at the Gartse Monastery in Guashize, China, on Feb, 28, 2018.JOHANNES EISELE/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
The diplomatic history thereafter is messy, since Britain, Russia, and the Chinese republics all, for their own self-interested reasons, contested Tibetan and Mongolian independence. Khalkha Mongolia would remain independent of China, but Mongol Tibetan Buddhists suffered under Soviet control. Still, at that moment in 1912, three states emerged clearly from the rubble of the Qing: an unstable Republic of China that militarists and revolutionaries vied to control; and Mongolia and Tibet, each under Tibetan Buddhist lamas as heads of state.

It was another Qing emperor, Qianlong, who introduced the golden urn system through which todays CCP hopes to manage the discovery of high Tibetan Buddhist lamas. Impatient with the nepotistic pipeline funneling Mongol nobility into the tulku ranks, in the late 18th century, Qianlong required that tulku candidates be chosen in a supervised ceremony by drawing the name a from a golden urn. This did enhance Qing control of Tibetan Buddhism to some degree, but as Max Oidtmann has shown in a recent book, to the extent that the golden urn was used, it was accepted because Tibetan Buddhists, too, understood the dangers of corruption and embraced an effort by a Qing khan, himself a devout Buddhist and embodiment of the bodhisattva Manjushri, to depoliticize the process of tulku selection.

By putting the CCPs Organization Department in charge of religious matters, Chinese President Xi Jinping has done the opposite: He has further politicized the selection of tulkus. Mongolia is a small democracy, sandwiched between increasingly authoritarian China and Russia, and economically dependent on maintaining good trilateral relations. But Mongolias independent political status challenges the CCP historical narrative that everything once part of the Qing Empire is now part of the PRCthe very argument underpinning Beijings assertions about Taiwan.

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The Dalai Lama waves during a press conference
The Dalai Lama waves during a news conference in a Copenhagen hotel on May 30, 2009.SCANPIX DENMARK/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
By the same neocolonialist historical logic by which it claims Taiwan, Beijing should also claim Mongolia, as the Republic of China under the Kuomintang did before the 1990s. But because Mongolia became independent thanks to intervention by the fellow-communist Soviet Union, the CCP broke with Republic of China precedent and recognized Mongolia in 1949. How Beijing reacts to the new Jebtsundambaa high lama in a religion it claims to controlthus implicates Beijings theory of the case regarding Taiwan, as well. If Beijing says there can be no Mongolian high lama without its say-so, that reveals the ludicrous overreach of its policy toward Tibetan Buddhism. But if it says nothing while a Qing-era lineage of tulku-leaders continues autonomously in Mongolia, that reminds us that the PRC is not the full-blown reincarnation of the Qing that it says it is.

The first Jebtsundamba led his people into the Qing Empire, and the eighth led them away from China. In so doing, each assessed which path he thought best served the faith. This is a heavy legacy to lay on the shoulders of an 8-year-old boy, and it is reasonable to question a religious institution that channels small children into a life of celibate study and political pressure. Still, the CCPs Order Number Five doesnt lessen that burden, nor is it likely to bring the khans and lamas together again.


James A. Millward is Professor of History in the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University.

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